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(DoS) attack that exploits a system’s inability to properly handle packets where the source and destination addresses are identical. By crafting malicious packets that have the same source and destination IP address and port number, attackers can cause the target system to enter an infinite loop of responses, leading to resource exhaustion and system disruption. … Read more

Confidentiality is one of the core principles of information security. In environments where security is paramount, such as military and government institutions, ensuring confidentiality is essential. One of the most well-known security models designed for this purpose is the Bell-LaPadula (BLP) model. What is the Bell-LaPadula Model? The Bell-LaPadula model was developed in 1973 by … Read more

Bus topology is a type of network topology where multiple devices (computers, printers, etc.) are connected through a single communication line known as a bus. This structure is relatively simple, making it an attractive option for small-scale networks due to its ease of setup and maintenance. Structure of Bus Topology In a bus topology, all … Read more

When designing a network, one of the fundamental aspects to consider is topology—the structure that defines how nodes (computers or network devices) are arranged and connected. Among various types of network topologies, Ring Topology is a structure where each node is connected in a closed-loop or circular fashion. Data travels in a predefined direction, either … Read more

When designing a network, one of the most commonly used topologies is Star Topology. This network structure features a central exchange node (hub, switch, or router) to which all devices (computers, servers, etc.) are directly connected. The central node acts as the main point of communication, facilitating data transfer between devices. Structure of Star Topology … Read more

Hierarchical topology, also known as tree topology, is a network structure that organizes devices and connections in multiple layers. This topology efficiently controls data flow, provides scalability, and facilitates easy network management. It is commonly used in distributed processing systems and large-scale networks to maintain an effective communication structure. Structure of Hierarchical Topology Hierarchical topology … Read more

In network communication, ensuring both reliability and efficiency in data transmission is a critical challenge. This is particularly true in wireless networks or environments with high variability, where packet loss frequently occurs. To address this issue, Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) methods are employed, among which Adaptive ARQ stands out as an advanced technique that dynamically … Read more

Error control is a crucial aspect of data communication, ensuring the reliable transmission of information across networks. One of the most efficient mechanisms for error recovery is Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ), which retransmits lost or corrupted packets to maintain data integrity. Among various ARQ techniques, Selective Repeat ARQ (SR-ARQ) stands out as an improvement over … Read more

What is Go-Back-N ARQ? Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is an error control protocol used in data transmission to ensure reliability. This protocol allows the sender to transmit multiple frames at once but requires retransmission of all frames after an erroneous one if an error is detected by the receiver. Go-Back-N ARQ is widely used … Read more

In computer networking, ensuring reliable data transmission is crucial. One of the fundamental error control techniques used to achieve this reliability is Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ). Among the various ARQ protocols, Stop and Wait ARQ is the simplest yet effective method, where the sender transmits a frame and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) or a … Read more